Human Behaviour Psychology

According to Sigmund Freud, (1856-1939), human beings are just mechanical creatures, whom he views as prisoners of primitive instincts and powers, which we can barely control. He states that our purpose is to control these instincts and powers. Freud explained these concepts by comparing the human spirit to an iceberg. The visible part of the iceberg (spirit) is the conscious part, which consists of everything we know and remember and the thinking processes through which we function.The unconscious part is made up of everything we have ever learned or experienced, including that which has been â€Å"forgotten†. A part of these forgotten things are really gone, but the largest part of the unconscious has just been shut out, because it would be annoying to be consciously reminded of it.The influences of Helmholtz are also visible at other points. According to Freud, the material in the unconscious contains psychic energy. This psychic energy is constantly trying to get into the conscious part, while the conscious part keeps using energy to suppress undesirable discoveries. An expression of unknown powers is, for example, slips of the tongue. These expressions show that our unconscious was not strong enough to keep these powers outside the conscious part. Philosophers in the seventeenth and eighteenth century (like Descartes and Hobbes)  shared a mechanistic view.They thought that some of our actions are the result of internal or external forces, which are not under voluntary control. Hobbes, for example, claimed that underlying reasons for behavior are the avoidance of pain and the quest for pleasure. The extreme of the mechanistic view is the theory of instincts. An instinct is an innate biological force, which commands the organism to behave in a particular way.The main advocate of the instinct theory was the psychologist McDougall. He hypothesized that all thinking and behavior is the result of instincts, which are fixed from birth, but which can be a djusted by learning and experience. By changes and combinations of instincts he tried to explain the whole repertoire of human behavior. Human behavior psychology is one of the  theories of learning based upon the central idea that all human behaviors are attained through conditioning. This is also known as behaviorism. Conditioning happens through the interaction of human beings with the environment. According to human behavior psychology, human behavior can be studied in a systematic, methodical, recognizable and observable manner with no deliberation of internal mental states. Strengths of human behavior psychology/Behaviorism†¢Human behavior psychology is based upon observable and noticeable behaviors, thus easier to quantify, collect empirical data and information while conducting research.†¢Behavioral intervention, token economies, and discrete trial training are some of the effective remedial techniques which are all rooted intensively in human behavior psychology , also commonly known as behaviorism. These techniques are very helpful in changing maladaptive, detrimental or harmful behaviors in both children and adults. Criticisms of human behavior psychology/behaviorism†¢Many detractors point out that human behavior psychology or behaviorism is an exclusively one-dimensional approach to human behavior and thus such human behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, feelings, etc. †¢Behaviorism or human behavior psychology does not account for further types of learning, in particular learning that occurs lacking the use of reinforcements.Also individuals are able to adapt their human behavior when new information is brought in, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established over a period of time through reinforcement. Human behavior refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, ra pport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics.The behavior of people (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits. In sociology, behavior in general is characterised as having no meaning, being not directed at other people, and thus is the most basic human action. Behavior in this general sense should not be mistaken with social behavior, which is a more advanced action, as social behavior is behavior specifically  directed at other people.The acceptability of behavior depends heavily upon social norms and is regulated by various means of social control. Human behavior is studied by the specialised academic disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, social work, sociology, economics, and anthropology. Human behaviour is experienced throughout an individual’s entire lifetime. It includes the way they act based on different factors such as genetics, social n orms, core faith, and attitude. Behaviour is impacted by certain traits each individual has. The traits vary from person to person and can produce different actions or behaviour from each person.Social norms also impact behaviour. Due to the inherently conformist nature of human society in general, humans are pressurised into following certain rules and display certain behaviours in society, which conditions the way people behave. Different behaviours are deemed to be either acceptable or unacceptable in different societies and cultures. Core faith can be perceived through the religion and philosophy of that individual. It shapes the way a person thinks and this in turn results in different human behaviours.Attitude can be defined as â€Å"the degree to which the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question.† One's attitude is essentially a reflexion of the behaviour he or she will portray in specific situations. Thus, human behavior is greatly influenced by the attitudes we use on a daily basis.

Depreciation and Cost Essay

1. The primary cause of the current system to fail is the use of a single burden rate. Burden costs of the testing rooms as well as other costs such as admin were grouped into a single cost pool and then divided by the total labor dollars. This resulted to a single burden rate of 145% of direct labor dollars (cost driver). This method is not appropriate for Seligram because the information on the case present that direct labor hours and machine hours vary by product line and activity. In addition, the burden cost of the main and test room also significantly vary. Therefore, using a single burden rate does not provide the true cost of the product, as it assumes all products consume direct labor and overhead in the same proportion. 2. Cost for each system are as follows: 3. I prefer the system proposed by the consultant because it is the most detailed, therefore will produce more accurate costs. 4. The ideal allocation base should have a direct cause-and-effect relation with the costs incurred. Based on the data provided in the case, it appears that the consultant’s proposed cost system is adequate because it considers the appropriate cost pool and allocation base. However, it should be noted that developing a cost system that is more detailed require the use of more time and resources. There needs to be a proper balance between accuracy and cost. 5. There is significant cost involved in the purchase of new equipment. Although the machine will be located in the Main Room, I would use a separate cost pool when calculating the burden rate of the new machine. The purchase price of the machine is $2 million. I will add the one-time installation and programming cost to the acquisition cost of the machine since these costs are required in order to get the machine ready for use. I will calculate depreciation based on the machine’s practical capacity over its estimated life, instead of double declining method. It seems that the use of double declining balance method of depreciation is inappropriate for allocation of costs because this method incurs higher depreciation in the early years, although the utilization is lower in the early years. By using practical capacity as the base, I am able to properly match the cost with the use of the machine.

Pathophysiology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Pathophysiology - Research Paper Example Hypersensitivity results into a systemic inflammatory response leading to a spectrum of problems ranging from just runny nose to anaphylactic shock to death. This life-threatening aberration of normal immune process, that is, anaphylactic response of a sensitized human appears within minutes after administration or exposure to the specific antigen and is manifested by respiratory distress, often followed by vascular collapse or shock without antecedent respiratory difficulty. Cutaneous manifestations exemplified by pruritus or urticaria with or without angioedema are characteristic. Along with that, there may be gastrointestinal manifestations like nausea, crampy abdominal pain, vomiting, or diarrhoea. The materials that are able to incite an event like this may be many, among them the drugs like penicillin, insulin, antisera, local anesthetics, and other environmental agents are listed (Ewan, P.W., 1996). We will look into the pathophysiology in detail, but for better understanding of the subject, we should learn in nutshell what happens. The normal immune response or normal humoral response against a foreign body is that plasma cells secrete IgE. The normal target for IgE is as shown in the figure on the surface of the mast cells and basophils, both involved in the inflammatory response. At the first secretion, this binds to the surface of the mast cells or basophils at specific receptor sites called Fc receptors, and such an IgE coated cell is said to be sensitized to the allergen concerned. A later exposure by the same allergen will reactivate the IgE. The mast cells or basophils have granules laden in it containing a very potent inflammatory agent, histamine. This activated IgE then processes signals for degranulation of mast cells and basophils by GPCRs or chemokine receptors (Austen, K.F., Metcalfe D.D., 1995). These granules then release histamine and other inflammatory substances like cytokines, interleukins, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins into the neighbouring and adjacent tissues causing several systemic effects, such as, dilatation of the vessels, mucous secretion, nerve stimulation, and smooth muscle contraction. We will examine all these issues in relation to the clinical findings of an anaphylactic process, but before that, let us see how things happen (Montanaro, A. and Bardana, E.J. Jr., 2002). Figure 2: Showing the Anaphylactic Process at Cellular level Adopted from British Medical Journal, Pamela W. Ewan, ABC of Allergies: Anaphylaxis, BMJ, 1998; 316, 1442-1445. Apart from this acute phase response of type 1 hypersensitivity reaction, pathologically, there is also a late phase response that happens after the acute phase

Rhetoric analysis of select paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rhetoric analysis of select paper - Essay Example He may have read several articles on epigenetics but he still is not worthy to refute Darwin’s theory. The first two paragraphs in the article is an enthymeme because a part of the argument of the author is missing. He talks of a missing full-day discovered by scientists, which was proven by a chapter in the bible. He then concludes his paragraph by stating that Darwin was wrong in his â€Å"myth† of creation. In this syllogism, the major premise is missing making the argument incomplete. It just suddenly concludes that Darwin’s theory is a mistake. Even in the title alone, Burkeman is successful at getting the attention of his readers. He uses kairos right at the start of the article. He takes advantage of the opportune time to capture his audience. What better time to catch the attention of the readers than at the beginning of the document. The title was skillfully worded to stimulate the readers’ views on Darwin’s theory and hopefully to keep the m stirred up during the duration of the argument the author wishes to expound. The title is pathos-driven because it tells the readers that everything they know about evolution is all wrong. This will evoke strong emotions on the readers who will be confused and probably ask themselves what then is the truth. The title alone will encourage people to read the article to find out why they are wrong and what then the right theory of evolution is. Burkeman also uses a play of words in his article, specifically when he used the words â€Å"nature† and â€Å"nurture†. He uses these words to further explain the concept of epigenetics. He uses these two words to describe about the effect of the environment, that is â€Å"nurture† and heredity, which is â€Å"nature†, on an individual’s descendants. The author displayed logos in his article by citing several experiments conducted by various scientists who question Darwin’s theory of evolution. He cit ed experiments such as the Swedish chicken which is a breakthrough in the field of epigenetics. Another experiment which Burkeman cited which illustrated his use of logos in trying to convey the idea he wished to espouse was the Norrbotten study on life spans. The idea that the author is trying to send to his readers was presented through a review of some literatures which delved on the topic of evolution. He gives his opinions on the book of David Shenk, â€Å"The Genius in All of Us†, the books of Dawkins, Dennett, Randy Thornhill and Craig Palmer’s â€Å"The Natural History of Rape†, Fodor and Piattelli-Palmarini’s book, â€Å"What Darwin Got Wrong†, the work of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and the research of Carl Woese and Nigel Goldenfield. He cites these studies in trying to prove wrong Darwin’s theory. Burkeman seems to contradict himself on his idea about Darwin’s theory of evolution. While his title implies that Darwin is wrong in his conclusions, in the end, he states that Darwin’s findings were the â€Å"beginning of journey to understand the origins and development of life† (Burkeman , par 30). Burkeman is quite illogical because he is contradicting himself. He refutes Darwin’s research largely in his article but in the end, he acknowledges Darwin’s work as being the stepping stone in further studies in evolution. In terms of style, Burkeman uses figurative language in his essay as exemplified in some statements such as, â€Å"I got up and refilled my cup†

The Essentials of Genomics and Genetics for Nurses Assignment

The Essentials of Genomics and Genetics for Nurses - Assignment Example While genetics refers to the â€Å"study of individual genes and their impact on relatively rare single gene disorders† genomics includes the â€Å"study of all the genes in the human genome together, including their interactions with each other, the environment, and the influence of other psychosocial and cultural factors† (Consensus panel, 2008, p. 8). Genomics takes into account the environmental factors and clearly demonstrates how these contribute to human health and illness. While genetics focuses on single gene disorders, genomics â€Å"takes a holistic view of genetics† (Ward, 2011, p. 2). Genomics and genetics knowledge, as well as competencies have been proved to be essential prerequisites in the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of various chronic diseases. Similarly, with the advancements made in genetic and genomic research genetic testing is now being widely employed for the diagnosis and prognosis of many common diseases like cancer. As such, gen etic and genomic competencies have become integral to the professional nursing practice today. This paper seeks to explore the essentials of genomics and genetics for nurses, and in doing so, it will look at genetic and genomic knowledge, competencies, professional responsibility, assessment and application of genomics and genetics to healthcare. ... For him, the genomic era of health care is a paradigm shift for the nurses and they need to â€Å"consider the collective influence of multiple gene variations and the cumulative effects of all manner of environmental factors on an individual‘s health, risk for disease, response to therapies, even behaviors† (Ward, 2011, p. 4). Usually, nurses need to interact with the patients much more than other health care professionals and therefore it is imperative that they possess ample genomic literacy so as to prepare, administer and explain various genomic applications to the patients. Studies and researches in the realms of genomics have opened new horizons of clinical care to the patients. The applications of genomic discoveries are visible in many areas of the health care industry. As Jenkins, Grady and Collins (2005, p. 98) have observed, â€Å"the applications of genomic discoveries in clinical care are expanding diagnosis, treatment, and prevention at an accelerating pa ce, and that knowledge will continue to improve the health of people throughout the world.† This growing importance of genomics and genetics services has increased the professional responsibility for nurses as well. Genomics has also prompted nurses and other health care professionals to think in terms of the health of the individual rather than his/her disease. Another significant impact of genetics and genomic research is that it has given way for more comprehensive personalized healthcare. Genetic and genomic services facilitate more individualized approaches to treat one’s illness or disease. Lea & Calzone (2010, p. 15) have rightly pointed out that â€Å"the influence of genetic and genomic factors in health and disease is creating opportunities for earlier diagnosis, more effective

Can Machines Know Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Can Machines Know - Essay Example There are also several ways of citing what makes up knowledge, some of them are more or less â€Å"internalist† and some are also â€Å"externalist.† I would like to follow the internalist point of view which says that knowledge is a justified belief that requires the believer to be aware of the cognitive process of the given belief. If this is the case, internalism, then, requires consciousness in the justification of a belief. So if we ask whether a machine can achieve consciousness, for me, the answer is no. There are several notions in explaining the criteria of consciousness. For example, functionalism theory states that consciousness comes about when all the parts are put together in the right sort of a whole. However, I would like to believe that personal experience or ability to experience is important in determining consciousness along with the ability to think and interpret. To experience â€Å"experiencing† one needs the skill of perception and intelligence. While one may argue that a computer with sensors could function in this manner, the concept of human independence, feelings and ethics or moral capacity is missing in the whole process.

Essential Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Essential Questions - Essay Example This is done by imparting and acquiring knowledge necessary to eliminate illiteracy and generally changing the mindset. Although in the modern day education is mainly advanced in formal settings such as schools, it can also be done in informal settings. In fact, the first education steps take place in informal settings and in a sub conscious situation from birth. According to Dewey, the sub conscious education from birth is responsible for shaping traits and arousing feelings and emotions in individuals (Dewey, p.1). This implies that education plays an important role in shaping people’s habits and general behavior. This corresponds with the main purpose of education of nurturing growth and general development essential in improving life status in entirety. Fulfilling education purposes requires an outline of appropriate strategies that integrate together to create the desired objective. These strategies stipulate the constituents of education and they tend to lie more on formal education. This is because informal education is seemingly uncontrollable since it entails everyday experiences some that may be adopted sub consciously. As such, determination of what education should entail lies more on improving efficiency and outcome of formal education. This implies that the main focus is on teachers critically examining their techniques and expertise in the teaching practice. This is because teaching techniques specific to the students in play are an appropriate way of advancing education (Ball and Forzani, 2009, p.6). However, other seemingly external factors such as government policies also have influence on education. Nonetheless, the best outcome from formal education has been coupled with student interests (Counts, p.2). This simply means making the learning process student friendly and parallel to some of the acceptable interests. Basically, education should

Incident at Oglala Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Incident at Oglala - Movie Review Example At preliminary glance, the main focus is on the shooting on the reservation which clearly flaunts violence. But if glimpsed upon a different perspective, the film also tackles the positive power of concinnity among the traditional natives. American Indian Movement, an organization established by natives, is a quintessence of unity among its people. During that time, the reservation is a clear cut picture of a forlorn landscape. Despondency is a norm, but the cohesiveness of the indigenous people has been evidently seen through the foundation of AIM. The respect for their culture and amongst the full blooded natives prevails. Leonard Peltier’s obedience to his Indian values has also been accentuated through his statements. He mentioned that being an AIM warrior makes him responsible to other people, whether it is menial task like fixing houses. Although the film is obviously made to illuminate Peltier’s innocence, it is noteworthy that Michael Apted made an effort to inc lude interviews from former FBI agents and members of the prosecution. This is certainly an attempt to make opinions of opposing parties known. Before the shooting at Oglala, there is already an atmosphere of violence throughout the reservation due to tribal conflicts. Traditional and nontraditional Indians are in dispute. This infighting has left many American Indians dead. Women and children ingenuously lost lives when caught in cross fires. Most of those who managed to survive may presumably suffered psychological trauma. The part that had made the situation worse was the ostensible ignorance on the part of the government. According to the film, the death toll is the highest in this area than of any other places in the country. On the day of the shooting, not only did two federal agents died, a native also died in the person of Joe Stuntz. Nobody was sued for the killing of the said native. The government is presumably either taking

Motivation and emotion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Motivation and emotion - Assignment Example Motivations are sometimes called instincts, and they help us survive. Emotions are expressions of selves and they are indicators of feelings and psychological dispositions of persons. To understand more of them, questions were posed and then answered. Do you consider yourself a sensation seeker? Why or why not? What are the advantages and disadvantages of your level of sensation seeking?   According to the Sensation Seeking Scale by Zuckerman, I found out that may level is high. This means that I am more adventurous than most people. According to psychologists, individuals with high SSS enjoy new experiences, and they engage in more risky sports, occupations and hobbies. These individuals also seek variety in sexual experiences and drug experiences (Atkinson, 1993). They also have less phobias, prefer exotic foods and gamble more. Basically, being a sensation seeker is being a risk taker. The main advantage of this trait is that learning is very concrete and hands-on. As they say, learning is not limited to the four walls of the classroom and by experiencing new things, learning is optimum. This is because the sensory faculties get stimulated. It was noted that sense stimulation increases one’s ability for normal perception and intellectual functioning.

Mission Statement and Marketing Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Mission Statement and Marketing Research - Essay Example well elaborated example is the Sharp Healthcare’s mission, â€Å"our mission is to improve the health of those we serve with a commitment to excellence in all that we do and our goal is to offer quality care and programs that set community standards, exceed patients’ expectations and are provided in a caring, convenient, cost-effective and accessible manner. This clearly gives a historical and dream purpose of the organization and its value structure and it explains that their existence is mainly to improve health in the society. The business is well managed so as to serve and give quality services to their patients, and it promises them a future that is caring, convenient and cost-effective. Marketing research is a core functional aspect of any business and it is based on two perspectives which are the vision, mission and organization goals and the other part is the internal/external analysis (Hillestad, 2004) which includes the assessment of the environment, competitors, an internal analysis, market evaluation and a review of marketing activities. the marketing plan of establishing a surgical center must uncover numerous opportunities and have all the necessary information ,have adequate data, and financial planning issues, building issues and miscellaneous of the surgical center. It provides potential partners information about the expectations, risks and profits of the project as well as the total equity to be contributed for the success of the outpatient surgical center (Lawrence, 2004). The marketing research plan embrace financial, human resource, technological, regulatory ,operational ,analysis of data linked with organization’s strategic plan, marketing s trategy, tactical marketing and information system compensations and have to build on the values and mission of the

Save Our Environment Essay Example for Free

Save Our Environment Essay A very good morning to my teachers and my fellow students. I am here today to give a speech about our role to ‘save our environment’. Today, when environment is being polluted so vigorously, everyone has only one question on their mind that is how to save environment from being polluted. The strongest way to protect environment is save trees. Trees play an important role to keep air clean. If there will be no fresh air available then how will human beings, animal, and birds survive? Therefore, a clean environment is the need for every living object on this earth. Many big organizations, schools, colleges, and NGOs are taking initiatives to save trees for a better future, clean air, and unpolluted environment, in short healthy life for living objects. Nowadays, trees are being cut with a great speed for full filling daily needs of human beings. You might have noticed that as the number of trees is reducing disasters are being continuously increasing, which is ultimately leading into high death rate. A big part of the trees is cut to make paper to help us do our personal and official works. If the use of paper will be minimized then we can save a large number of trees from being cut, which leads into healthy and clean environment that is fresh air and healthy life. One of the biggest initiatives to save trees is to promoting the use of paper less media like mobile phones. It is really a great idea to use paperless media to minimize the use of paper. Another initiative, which has been taken by schools, colleges, and universities in the increase in online examinations. Finally, i hope that one day we could be a responsible human being, we all need to take some initiatives to protect environment and to save trees to live a better life. That is all, thanks for listening.

The Global Financial Crisis On Gcc Countries Economics Essay

The Global Financial Crisis On Gcc Countries Economics Essay The global financial crises that erupted in 2008 affected all countries, rich and poor, to varying degrees, worldwide (Iqbal 2008). Financial markets around the world became more volatile and the economic slowdown created a ripple effect beginning with the United States and Europe into several more economically integrated countries (Nabibi 2009). In a short span of time, severe economic losses were reported by banks, real estate, and equity markets. Blackstone chief executive officer (CEO) Steve Schwarzman stated in the Davos World Economic Forum that the global economic meltdown destroyed 40 percent of the worlds wealth (Conway 2009). The crisis began in September 2007 and concentrated in US real estate termed as the subprime crisis and eventually developed into what economists called the credit crunch in 2008 (Nabibi 2009). As American and European banks incurred losses because of exposure to sub-prime assets, their capital was reduced and affected their capacity to lend. Moreover, corporate and household borrowers began to deleverage (Al Maraj 2008). As major financial institutions went bankrupt and household wealth eroded, investor and consumer confidence went down significantly (Woertz 2008). Quick policy responses from governments of the West was able to prevent their economies from plummeting into depression, but the U.S. experienced one of its worst recessions since the Second World War (United Nations 2009a). While economists have said that no country was spared as a result of the global financial crisis, the effects were disparate among different economies. For instance, the more severe losses were exper ienced by highly integrated economies and had minimal impact on Arab economies which are less integrated (Behrendt, Haq and Kamel 2009). However, the global economic slowdown also resulted to the decline in demand for oil, which claims a significant chunk in the exports of countries composing the Gulf Cooperation Council or GCC (Nabibi 2009). The initial impact of the crisis was the sudden plunge of oil prices, coupled with the depletion of half of local stock markets by half, and the loss of value of investments in the global market. The decrease in oil prices affected the oil-exporting GCC countries which are also the most globalized in the region (Fakir 2009). The domino effect came later unemployment, decline in remittances, reduced government income, reduced trade and investment and reduced social service allocations (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP] 2010). On the other hand, GCC decision makers and finance ministers have reiterated that strict monetary oversight ha s shielded their economies from the worst effects of the global crisis (Tzannatos 2009). The finance ministers stated that the abundant liquidity is enough to assuage investor concerns and highlight the stability of the monetary system of the GCC (Al Jazeera 2008).   Nevertheless, these effects cannot be generalized for all the GCC countries given their diversity (Nabibi 2009). Countries that are more exposed to global capital, investment and consumption demand face a greater risk of being affected by the crisis than others. For instance, Dubai in the UAE, which depend heavily on international capital, tourism and real estate, seems to be more adversely affected than other countries. On the other hand, Saudi Arabia, which has only 25 per cent foreign workers compared to much higher proportions in the other GCC economies might be much less affected than others (Rajan and Narayana 2009). The crisis seems to have visibly hit the GCC economies in the beginning of 2009. However, both the depth and intensity of crisis and the possibility of turnaround are not clear. This paper examines the impact of the global financial crisis on the six countries who are members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). 2 Objectives This study seeks to: 1. Assess the impact of the recession on key industries in the GCC economies; 2. Assess the impact of the recession on employment and other social services; 3. Identify the measures undertaken by various stakeholders to mitigate the adverse effects. 3 Topic Area The central topic of this study is the 2008 global financial crisis, which is one of the most significant economic phenomena that caused turmoil in countries all over the world. To some economists, it demonstrated the volatility and instability of increasingly integrated economies under a globalized world. As many have observed, the countries which were greatest hit by the crisis were those which were highly globalized (Nabibi 2009).    The implications of the crisis for the GCC are significant. In the Arab region, GCC countries are the most globalized, so logically, the erosion of corporate wealth in the US and Europe would have an accompanying impact on the GCC economies. Indeed, as the World Bank (2009) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) studies have shown, stock markets in all of the GCC countries experienced a significant decline because of the withdrawal of investment from foreign financial institutions. Moreover, privately-funded and domestic projects have been cancelled or abandoned, resulting to a great number of people being laid off and without jobs (Tzannatos 2009; Rajan and Narayana 2009). Despite pronouncements from government decision makers, the effects of the downturn on GCC economies seemed evident (Woertz 2008). Many organizations such as the World Bank and the ILO conducted impact assessments to determine the effect of the financial crisis on trade and industry in the GCC (Iqbal 2008 ). Understanding how it impacts the GCC economies and determining the effectiveness of the policy responses by governments shed light on how best to strengthen economies to mitigate the effects of the global financial crisis. After all, it seems certain that the global financial crisis of 2008 was not the first to its kind and will not be the last. 4 Literature Review   Studies and statistics assessing the impact of the global financial crisis on Arab countries have mixed results. Some have stated that the impact, while present, has been minimal (Behrendt, Haq, and Kamel 2009; Khamis 2010) while others have hypothesized of a more lingering adverse impact for oil-exporting economies such as those in the GCC (Nabibi 2009; Bloomberg 2010). The initial pathway for the effects of the crisis to become transmitted into the GCC was its financial markets. It began with the regional stock markets characterized by high volatility. Financial institutions as well as real estate developers, which comprise among the largely publicly-listed corporations in the GCC were adversely affected, especially Dubai (Nabibi 2009). Moreover, due to real estate speculations effect of increasing defaults on mortgages, many commercial banks in the Middle East region were hurt. Despite having a limited exposure to the global financial markets, banks in GCC countries maintained large investments and loaned very large sums to private entities for the purpose of investment (Center for Strategic Research 2009). As stock prices plummeted, several banks experienced massive default loans and loss of asset values (Khamis 2010). Although the banking sector experienced shock waves, the Islamic banks on the other hand were insulated (Iqbal 2008). Because the y are protected from toxic financial assets and prohibit speculation, the first impact of the global financial crisis shielded them. In addition, sovereign wealth funds (SWFs) also suffered heavy losses as a result of the global financial crisis. The heavier losses were recorded by those which have significant investments in the US stock market, financial institutions, insurance companies, and banks. Estimates put losses at over 200b USD for the year 2008 alone (United Nations 2009b). Aside from the financial sector, the effects of the global financial crisis have also impacted the real economy (Woertz 2008). In real estate, projects which are ongoing or are in the planning stage are likely to be suspended because of financial squeeze. Financing for large construction projects will not be so feasible. This is why one of the largest-hit of the global financial crisis is Dubai where the real estate sector is heavily dependent on speculation and debt financing (Rajan and Narayana 2010). Revenue generation among countries has also generally decreased. Figures from the ILO in 2009 reveal that real GDP growth has shrunk from 6 percent in 2007 to 4 percent in 2009. There is great indication that the crisis will have a more sustainable effect on the region within the years to come. Moreover, due to high inflation, increasing national debt, and prolonged volatility of markets will render more GCC countries vulnerable to the economic slowdown (Center for Strategic Research 2009). Analysts have been keen to point out that the significant drop of oil prices and demand for oil will be the biggest obstacle for the GCC economies. From a barrel price of 140USD in July 2008, oil prices have dropped to merely 40USD per barrel in January 2009. This significant drop increases the threat of negative fiscal balances for Oman, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia due to losses in oil revenue. Hence, the projected growth among GCC countries may be set back a few years more because of downward trend of oil prices (Behrendt, Haq, and Kamel 2009). The slowdown of the European economy may also force GCC countries to reduce production, which will eventually lead to further decline of real GDP in oil-exporting countries (Bloomberg 2010). Saudi Arabia was also severely hit, with its GDP down from 4.2 percent in 2008 to 0.7 percent in 2009 (United Nations 2010a, p. 74).Moreover, without sound governance, the current practice of oil-exporting countries of maintaining high fiscal spending despi te declining oil revenues will further hamper growth (Nabibi 2009). Analysis and predictions over the impact of the global financial crisis on the GCC economies are mixed. While they unanimously state that the global crisis has had an adverse effect on GCC countries, some have stated that the impact is negligible (Khamis 2010) and is not adverse enough to threaten the stability of the region. Behrendt, Haq, and Kamel (2009) opined that the GCC economies are in a relatively well position and can ably cope with the challenges of the global economic turmoil because of many reasons. Firstly, the GCC region has abundant liquidity from incomes out of high commodity prices. Secondly, sound economic management has enabled GCC economies to weather the economic slowdown quite well. Thirdly, the economies of GCC countries are weakly integrated to the global economy as compared to other regions. Smith (2008) said that while there have been negative effects experienced by GCC economies, they are manageable compared to what has been suffered by other countries. The effects of the global financial crisis have also been diverse in degree. For instance, the Oxford Business Group (2009) opined that by and large, the banking sector in Saudi Arabia has demonstrated a high degree of resilience and was insulated from the problems which confronted commercial banks in other GCC countries. Moreover, the Saudi economy in general was found to better than other countries to avoid any negative impact (p. 61) on the following grounds. First, Saudis banks have focused on domestic demand, thereby keeping exposure to the US subprime assets at arms length. Second, Saudis mortgage industry is relatively underdeveloped, and therefore a minimal impact on its real estate sector was experienced in comparison to other GCC countries. Thirdly, the sector still maintains a large and underbanked deposit base to draw from (Oxford Business Group 2009). Among the GCC economies, the UAE has been the most affected by the crisis. Between 2008 and 2009, real GDP growth fell from 7.4 to 0.5 percent. This was due to a severe contraction in domestic demand, notably in Dubai. In the UAE, the real estate sector represents 16 percent of GDP, so the slowdown in this sector had a severe impact on growth. Around 80 percent of Dubais workforce is composed of expatriates, and due to the layoffs, consumption has been significantly reduced (United Nations 2010a, p. 73). GCC economies responded to the effects of the global crisis by adopting measures and policies to mitigate its adverse consequences. Most GCC countries reproduced the policy responses of Western governments such as fiscal stimulation and stricter financial guidelines and regulations. The responses varied relatively depending on the circumstances of their economy. As the first impact of the global crisis directly hit financial institutions and the stock markets, GCC countries first policy responses was directed at supporting the banking sector by providing liquidity and credit support. Oil exporters such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the UAE fortified their banking systems by providing deposit guarantees for commercial banks (Woertz 2008). The effects of the global financial crisis on the banking sector have been buffered by several policy measures undertaken by GCC governments and their central banks. Some of the key measures taken since early September 2008 are as follows: reducing the Repo rate four-fold from 5.5 to 2.5 percent, reducing capital reserve requirement for banks, and injecting 3bUSD to enhance liquidity (Saudi Arabia); reducing Repo benchmark to 1.5 percent, injecting 32b USD in the financial and banking sector to ensure liquidity (UAE); reducing discount rates by 50 percent and guaranteeing of deposits (Kuwait) (Iqbal 2008). 5 Research Questions   The central question which this study answers is: What is the impact of the global financial crisis on the GCC countries? The following sub-questions will also be addressed, to wit: 1. What effect did the global financial crisis have on the financial markets, export demand, and government revenue in GCC countries? 2. How did the global financial crisis affect social indicators such as poverty and unemployment in GCC Countries? 3. What policy responses were made by GCC countries to counter the effects of the financial crisis? Research Hypotheses 1. The global financial crisis had a negative impact on the financial markets, export demand, assets, tourism, and remittances in the GCC countries. The impact of the crisis however went at varying degrees across countries. 2. The crisis led to an increase in unemployment and to the decrease of budget allocation for social services. 6 Methodology Overview of approach   This study follows a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and data analysis in order to achieve its goals. Because this study wants to determine the impact of the global financial countries on the economies of the GCC countries, the use of statistics is indispensable. Hence, the use of statistical evidence and the analysis of statistical data will form the bulk of the quantitative aspect of this study. The use of quantitative methods will provide generalization and predictions which are important to this study. On the other hand, there is a need to give the study a more in-depth character in order to fully understand the impact of the global financial crisis in its own context (Strauss and Corbin 2003). It is assumed that statistical research may not be able to take into full account the effects of the financial crisis. In order to have the best of both paradigms, qualitative and quantitative approaches are combined in this research in order to provide insights that neither approaches alone can provide (Patton 2005). Data Collection   Qualitative and quantitative forms of data will be gathered for the purposes of this study. 1. Key informant interviews Key informant interviews are qualitative in-depth interviews with individuals who are knowledgeable about the topic of interest. The purpose of conducting key informant interviews is to gain access to information which people who have first-hand knowledge only possess. In the context of the research objectives already outlined, key informant interviews can provide information about how the global financial crisis has affected GCC countries from a limited number of economic analysis or experts who have been able to observe and track the consequences of the global financial crisis in their respective countries. In particular, five (5) key informant interviews will be conducted. Participants will be individuals who are highly qualified to provide information about the effects of the global economic crisis: professors, economic analysts, or business experts. Face-to-face interviews or Internet correspondence will be conducted. Interviews will be transcribed and interpreted accordingly. 2. Statistical reports and other documentary evidence As stated earlier, the use of statistical data is indispensable to this study. To track the effects of the global financial crisis on key areas of the six GCC economies, official reports and statistics from authoritative sources will be used such as the World Bank, International Labor Organization, the OECD, and International Monetary Fund. Moreover, secondary sources such as newspaper articles, in-house reports, and other pertinent documents will be used to verify or illuminate findings. Data Analysis   Data from the key informant interviews will be analyzed for recurring themes, patterns, and ideas. Statistical data from reports and documentary evidence will be analyzed using descriptive statistics. Interpretation   Because qualitative data tends to be subjective, findings from the key informant interviews will be cross-checked and verified with secondary sources. In order to reduce the probability of bias, results from the interviews will be substantiated with findings from statistical analysis performed on the reports and documentary evidence. 7 Expected Results   Out of the mixed-methods approach that this study will undertake in determining the impact of the global financial crisis, the following results are expected: 1. A detailed presentation of the key economic and social indicators in significant areas of six GCC countries highlighting improvement or decline; 2. An in-depth presentation of interview findings from well-known and expert informants that will substantiate or illuminate on the findings from statistical sources. 3. Key policy responses made by governments are identified and recommendations for improvement are also outlined.

Rainbow Parrotfish Scarus Guacamaia

Rainbow Parrotfish Scarus Guacamaia Abstract The rainbow parrotfish Scarus guacamaia is a prominent herbivore in the coastal waters of southeastern Florida whose life history is strongly linked to a dependence on both mangrove and coral reef habitats. Rainbow parrotfish also serve in maintaining the health of coral reefs by keeping algal populations in check. Using NOAA fisheries data from the Mangrove Visual Census and the Reef Visual Census, this study focused on observations of this species in Biscayne Bay and the Upper Florida Bay in order to quantify occupancy and to examine the different factors that affect the presence and absence, and the ontogenetic shifts present in this species between juvenile and adult stages. Logistic regression was used to predict abundance and occurrence using the environmental variables of temperature, dissolved oxygen, salinity, average depth, and distance from channel openings. Presence and absence were also measured against mangrove cover, bottom substrate type, and shoreline development. It was found that salinity, average depth, and distance from channel openings were significant in predicting the occurrence of this species, while temperature and dissolved oxygen were not. Conservation efforts for this species, listed as vulnerable under the IUCN, need to be given greater consideration as the health of this and other parrotfish may be useful in determining the management breadth and priorities on coral reef ecosystems across the Caribbean Sea. Key words: rainbow parrotfish, mangroves, logistic regression, conservation, land-use planning. Acknowledgements In completing this thesis research, I would foremost like to thank my advisor, David W. Kerstetter, Ph.D., and committee members John F. Walter III, Ph.D. and Richard E. Spieler, Ph.D., whose input and guidance has been critical in moving forward through this project. I would like to thank David L. Jones, Ph.D. for his assistance on equations and statistics. For their assistance in various aspects of ArcGIS, I would like to thank Brian K. Walker, Ph.D. and Kristian Taylor. Notably, I would like to thank James A. Bohnsack, Ph.D. and Joseph E. Serafy, Ph.D. and their work, without whom, this research could not have taken place. I would like to thank my lab mates, especially Bryan Armstrong, Shannon Bayse, Amy Heemsoth, Cheryl Cross, and Kerri Bolow for all their feedback, inquiries, assistance and advice throughout the entire research process. Finally, I would like to thank my family and all my friends for their tireless support and unfailing encouragement in the completion of my thesi s work. Introduction Life History of the Rainbow Parrotfish Rainbow parrotfish Scarus guacamaia is the largest herbivorous fish in the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea and is found in both mangrove and coral reef habitats (Mumby 2006). The rainbow parrotfish is a large, heavy-bodied, and laterally compressed fish, compared with other species of reef fish. It has a fusiform body shape with dull orange fins possessing streaks of green extending into the dorsal and anal fins; median fin margins are blue in color with the dental plates appearing a blue-green. In this species there appears to be no obvious color differentiation based on sex (Cervigà ³n 1994). Rainbow parrotfish are behaviorally cautious in nature, and are generally observed in isolation, though they can be found in schools of up to thirty individuals (Dunlop and Pawlik 1998). It has a daily home range of about 1000 m3 (Smith 1997), and occupies varying depths from the surface to 25 m. It depends on corals for shelter and space to inhabit (Cole et al. 2008) and seeks shelter under ledges at night or when threatened. The species has been shown to use the angle of the sun as an aid in returning to these shelters (Smith 1997). Rainbow parrotfish are herbivorous fish that, like most members of the Scaridae family, feed mainly by scraping macro-algae from coral structure (Bellwood et al. 2004). However, it has also been observed to feed directly on coral (Rotjan and Lewis 2006) and gut content analyses have revealed spicules from feeding on sponges (Dunlop and Pawlik 1998). Rainbow parrotfish life history characteristics are reasonably well known. It is a protogynous hermaphrodite, meaning individuals in this species undergo a sex change between their initial phase, where they are generally female and terminal phase, where they are male. Terminal phase male rainbow parrotfish defend a territory and a harem of females, and when the male dies, the most dominant female will become the dominant male, with her ovaries becoming functional male testes (Streelman et al. 2002). Like other species in this family, peak spawning occurs primarily in warmer summer seasons from May to August, but can occur year-round, and there is an active period of recruitment into the population occurring around February in this region (Haus et al. 2000). Spawning is found to take place generally around dusk, and may correlate to either the lunar cycle or the high tide, as this is an optimal time for egg dispersal. The initial phase is composed of females while the terminal phase i s composed of sexually mature males. Rainbow parrotfish aggregate into territories that contain a group of females and the dominant male, which pair-spawns almost exclusively within this group (Munoz and Motta 2000). The rainbow parrotfish is a relatively large reef fish, compared to most species of reef fishes in the Caribbean, and can achieve a maximum length of 120 cm (TL). The estimated K value of 0.293 equates to a minimum population doubling time of approximately four and a half to fourteen years (Robins and Ray 1986; Randall 1962). Observations of rainbow parrotfish have been made in waters with temperatures ranging from 12-36  °C, salinities ranging from 23.74 to 39.1 †° (parts per thousand), and dissolved oxygen concentrations ranging from 2.4 to 14.07 †° (Serafy et al. 2003). The species wide range of tolerances to these factors is most likely an adaptation to the wide range of its known habitats. These habitats range from estuaries to offshore areas, both of which are subject to large pulses of freshwater and storm events. The varied thermal and oxic conditions cannot be exploited by less tolerant species and may be beneficial in providing refuge from predators, foraging gr ounds, or potential nursery areas (Rummer et al. 2009). The diet of rainbow parrotfish has been shown to be variable across life stages and habitats. In the Dunlop and Pawlik (1998) study, sponge spicules were found in higher masses in the individuals collected from the mangrove sites as compared to those from coral reefs, suggesting there are shifts in diet preference based on the food sources available. A secondary food source is coral, as rainbow parrotfish has been classified as a facultative corallivore based on direct observations, meaning coral can be either a majority of their diet or only a minor component. These fish impose more permanent and chronic pressures on scleractinian corals (those that generate a hard skeleton such as Montastrea and Porites species) meaning there is repeat scraping activity on these corals, and the damage caused is longer lasting. However, chronic predation may play a factor in regulating distribution, abundance, and fitness of certain prey corals (Cole et al. 2008). Though not fully known, this corall ivory may be part of an ontogenetic diet shift, meaning coral is only an important food source for part of their lives, accounting for less than five percent of their bites (Cole et al. 2008). Along with this diet selectivity comes the ability to cause significant damage to corals by biting off growing tips or large portions of skeletal material, which means they are capable of having a disproportionately large impact on the physical structure of Caribbean reefs (Cole et al. 2008). It has also been observed that grazing reduced the density of zooxanthellae and increased the severity of a bleaching event in Belize (Cole et al. 2008). Rainbow parrotfish use a feeding method of scraping or grinding algae from the coral or other rocky substrate, and sometimes inadvertently ingests coral animals as well. The hard coral substrate is broken down through its digestive system, and the excretion of this limestone material is one of the main sources in the creation of the sand surrounding cora l reefs in the Caribbean. Parrotfishes are known to become progressively more important to coral reef ecosystems upon reaching a certain key size around 15-20 cm, at which point they become functionally mature (Lokrantz et al. 2008) and their actions provide a significant impact on the coral reef. This impact increases exponentially as there is a non-linear relationship between body size and scraping function. Calculations have suggested that up to 75 individuals with a size of 15 cm are required to functionally compensate for the loss of a single 35 cm individual, and a 50% decrease in body size can result in a 90% loss of function provided to the ecosystem (Lokrantz et al. 2008). In addition, the level of grazing impact in mangrove systems is also a power function of body length. A conservative estimate places the home range of S. guacamaia at 1600 m3 (Mumby and Hastings 2008), which is larger than that of many other scarids. Rainbow parrotfish also represents approximately 14% of the total grazing intensit y measured for mangrove depauperate systems (Mumby and Hastings 2008). The majority of the rainbow parrotfish diet consists mostly of short epilithic turf algae, cropped algae, red coralline algae, and filamentous algae (Mumby and Hastings 2008), and they feed heavily upon Halimeda opuntia, a green calcareous alga. Juvenile scarid abundance has also been shown to be positively related to the percent cover of Dictyota spp. algae at site level in the Florida Keys (Kuffner et al. 2009). Similar parrotfish species have been observed consuming whole pieces of the thallus rather than grazing on the attached epiphytes, and taking more bites from H. opuntia and fewer bites from coral than would be expected from the percent cover of different microhabitats (Munoz and Motta 2000). While not quantitatively known for rainbow parrotfish, a mean home range for similar parrotfish species, redband parrotfish and redtail parrotfish, in the Florida Keys was observed to be 4371.5 +/- 5869.5 m2 (Munoz and Motta 2000); the standard error was found to be high due to a low nu mber (n = 7) of study sites. Due to overlap in microhabitat and foraging areas in these home ranges, interspecific aggression between parrotfish species takes place when one species attempts to use defended resources to the detriment of the defending species. This aggression involves vigorous chasing over comparatively large distances, as well as biting. Engaging in resource defense behavior was found to be advantageous as the benefits gained outweighed the cost (Munoz and Motta 2000). Aggression has also been observed to be greater when encountering other parrotfish species as opposed to non-parrotfish species and rainbow parrotfish were instigated into these aggressive encounters most often by redband parrotfish Sparisoma aurofrenatum (Munoz and Motta 2000). Scarus guacamaia is most closely related phylogenetically to midnight parrotfish Scarus coelestinus and striped parrotfish Scarus iseri, with Scarus clades having root nodes at between 2 and 3 million years ago, thus implying that most Scarus species are products of recent speciation. This speciation likely occurred around the time of the complete closure of the Isthmus of Panama at approximately 3.1-3.5 million years ago (Smith et al. 2008). The pantropical distribution and the relatively recent ages of the divergence of the four main clades of Scarus imply that fluctuations in sea level and patterns of differential cooling of the oceans during the Pliocene and Pleistocene may be the driving forces behind the rapid radiation in this genus, which is today largely restricted to the complex reefs built by hard corals (Smith et al. 2008). Alternatively, processes of ecological speciation and divergence due to sexual selection remain a possible explanation for the rapid radiation of parr otfishes, which all have pelagic larval phases and highly similar morphology (Smith et al. 2008). The protogynous mating system of parrotfishes, where species aggregate and have male-dominated haremic systems organized by color recognition, has also been proposed as a possible driving force for speciation via sexual selection mechanisms (Smith et al. 2008). The phylogeny of parrotfish suggests a gradual shift from browsers living in seagrasses to excavators inhabiting rock and/or coral reefs to scrapers found exclusively in association with coral, with Sparisoma being considered the transitional genus (Streelman et al. 2002). It can be assumed that the Scarus genus has always had a habitat association with coral reefs as the Scarus genus is the third radiation off of the Sparisoma lineage (Streelman et al. 2002). Of the parrotfishes, S. guacamaia is the only species that possesses an obligate and functional dependence on the mangrove habitats (Nagelkerken 2007; Mumby 2006). This dependency has been shown quantitatively in the Mumby et al. (2004) study in which the species suffered local extinctions that corresponded with the removal of mangrove stands, and the extent of mangrove coverage in a region is one of the dominant factors in structuring reef communities. Mangrove connectivity enhances the biomass of rainbow parrotfish on neighboring coral reefs, because grazing influences the cover of macroalgae on reefs and high levels of parrotfish grazing has been shown to lead to a twofold increase in recruitment of Porites and Agaricia corals in the Bahamas (Mumby and Hastings 2008). Biomass of rainbow parrotfish has been shown to more than double when coral reefs were located adjacent to rich mangrove resources, defined as mangrove stands with 70 km or greater of fringing red mangrove Rhizophora mangle located in a region of 200 km2, equating to coverage of 35% (Mumby 2006). Juveniles of this species, those less than 30 cm total length (TL), are observed almost exclusively in mangrove habitats, while all individuals observed on the coral reef were greater than 25 cm TL (Dorenbosch 2006). Average sizes of 10.1 cm and 14.6 cm TL have been recorded in mangroves and seagrass beds, respectively (Nagelkerken et al. 2000). The species of juvenile reef fishes that utilize mangroves and seagrass beds do so because of the high food availability, the presence of shade and shelter that the mangroves provide, and a reduced risk of predation due to the plant and root configurations. There is also a lessened chance of interaction with predator species as well as low predator abundance and efficiency (Verweij et al. 2006). Shallow water habitats such as mangroves and seagrasses, are believed to contain less piscivores than the reef (Verweij et al. 2006) possibly because the energetic cost s of chasing the smaller fish in these habitats outweigh the gains of catching one of the prey fish. The turbidity of the water can also negatively affect predator efficiency due to scattering and reduction of light by suspended particles (Verweij et al. 2006). There is significant interannual variability in species composition that may be expected in mangrove fish communities, but spatial factors have been found to contribute more to differences in fish community structure than seasonality (Robertson and Duke 1990). Verweij et al. (2006) tested the effects of plant structure, shade, and food upon rainbow parrotfish foraging behavior using artificial seagrass leaves and artificial mangrove roots. Rainbow parrotfish showed the same trends as those of pooled herbivores, showing highly significant Poisson regression results for the tested variables of structure, food, structure*food, and location of the experimental unit. In this study, 72 individuals were observed ranging in size from 7.5-15.0 cm. The behavior observed was broken down into 2.8% of individuals resting (spaced evenly throughout the water column), 91.7% foraging, and 5.6% swimming. Eighty-four percent of the rainbow parrotfish observed foraging in the study were found in the artificial mangrove roots, with six percent foraging on artificial seagrass leaves. It was determined that the presence of higher surface area on the root structure provided more substrate for algae, which allowed for diurnal feeding (feeding that occurs in the da ytime) on the fouling algae and epiphytes in mangroves and seagrass beds. Rainbow parrotfish observed in this study were also found to be preferential to experimental units with the highest structural complexity. Caribbean region mangroves and seagrass beds function as foraging habitats, but are not used continuously as shelter during the daytime (Verweij et al. 2006). The value of these habitats is diminished with decreased water clarity from turbidity originating from terrestrial run-off, leading to population declines in this and other species (Freeman et al. 2008). Seagrass minimum light requirements differ between species and systems. Halodule and Syringodium seagrass species often require more than 24-37% surface light intensity (Freeman et al. 2008). These seagrass species consistently require minimum light levels that are an order of magnitude higher than the requirements of terrestrial plants or other photosynthetic marine organisms. Reduced subsurface light intensity has c aused seagrass declines and the subsequent re-suspension of unstabilized sediments has impeded recovery of these seagrass systems, increasing the pressure placed on species such as the rainbow parrotfish that depend on them (Freeman et al. 2008). However, presence of preferential habitat is not the only contributing factor determining abundance. It is possible that habitat configuration has an influence on the connectivity between mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs and this configuration in terms of providing pathways and connections to the reef affects fish assemblage composition, fish density and size, and species richness (Dorenbosch et al. 2007). Local recruitment patterns can also play a major role. In a study off Curaà §ao, juvenile densities on the reef were comparable to those in seagrass beds, suggesting that this species can also use the coral reef as a nursery (Dorenbosch et al. 2004). Dorenbosch et al. (2007) concluded that for rainbow parrotfish, migration among these habitats most likely takes place along the coastline. The presence of seagrass-mangrove bays along the coasts of these islands strongly influences the distribution pattern of this species on the coral reef (Dorenbosch et al. 2004). The absence of seagrass beds and mangroves was shown to lead to reduced density of those species that utilize seagrass-mangrove bays in juvenile stages (Dorenbosch et al. 2004). For island sites, this migration was observed to occur on the sheltered or leeward shores, where most adult individuals were observed on coral reefs between 0 and 10 km from mangroves. However, no significant linear relationship was present between mean total density of adult rainbow parrotfish on these reefs and the distance to the nearest stands of mangroves (Dorenbosch et al. 2006). There was also reduced density or complete absence of juvenile rainbow parrotfish on the coral reefs that were farther than nine kilometers from the mangrove and seagrass habitats used by fish of juvenile ages. The density of these species is additionally regulated on local scales by variable habitat structural complexity and the available vegetation. Herbivory, measured by rates of grazing, was found to be highest at the maximum habitat complexity site (Unsworth et al. 2007). This suggests that the increased shelter and food abundance provided by denser seagrass beds may have increased fish abundance resulting in these higher levels of herbivory (Unsworth et al. 2007). Herbivory was found to increase away from patchy seagrass areas whilst increasing distance from a reef reduced the rate of herbivory due to a reduction in fish migration. Observed high levels of herbivory, however, may only be a short-term effect of irregular grazing by shoals of juvenile and sub-adult scarids (Unsworth et al. 2007). Rainbow parrotfish migrate across habitats in accordance with its life history stage, and will grow as large as possible before moving on to the next habitat (Mumby et al. 2004). Utilization of intermediate nursery habitats has been hypothesized to increase survivorship of small fish (Mumby et al. 2004). The intermediate nursery stages between mangroves, seagrass beds, and patch reefs serve the function of alleviating predatory bottlenecks in early demersal ontogeny (Mumby et al. 2004). A predatory bottleneck occurs when pressure from predation prevents a large percentage of a population from reproducing. The presence of seagrass beds has also been linked to significantly higher densities of rainbow parrotfish on coral reefs (Dorenbosch et al. 2006) while other studies (e.g., Gonzalez-Salas et al. 2008) have found differing results with respect to these nursery habitats. Noting high abundance of juveniles and adult members of S. guacamaia in coral reef habitats and a total absence in mangrove stands, it appears that mangroves in certain regions do not function as obligate habitats and that seagrass and coral rubble become the primary alternative for nursery, growth, and reproduction (Gonzalez-Salas et al. 2008). It is possible that with removal of mangrove forests the rainbow parrotfish are adapting to utilize other habitats that offer similar survival benefits. The reduced benefits of these marginal habitats may not provide rainbow parrotfish with the resources necessary to survive across their entire life history, allowing only temporary survival through one life stage or another (Rummer et al. 2009). This selective use, which is defined as use of a particular habitat patch disproportionately relative to its availability, can be exhibited either seasonally or spatially, and proximity rather than suitability has been found as the dominant pattern of habitat use (Faunce and Serafy 2008). Mangrove shorelines across broad spatial scales are not equivalent in thei r value as fish habitats due to the inherent patchiness within the ecosystem. A measure of total habitat area may therefore overestimate the amount of functional habitat utilized by these fishes. In addition, species richness and total number of fishes collected adjacent to mangrove shorelines has been shown to decline with increasing inland distance from creek mouths and oceanic inlets, with water depth greatly related to fish use (Faunce and Serafy 2008). Rainbow parrotfish are valuable members of the communities with which they are associated. The grazing activities of these parrotfish are beneficial in preventing algal overgrowth and enhance coral reef resilience to algal blooms and other competitor species (Hughes et al. 2007). The species also facilitates settlement and survival of corals by scraping and bioeroding the hard dead coral substratum and are crucial for the regeneration and maintenance of coral reefs (Lokrantz et al. 2008). Rainbow parrotfish and other scarid species participate in not only the uptake of carbon into the food chain in their direct consumption of seagrass, but also indirectly contribute to the detrital food chain with the removal of decaying seagrass material, which potentially results in the widespread dispersal of seagrass material into surface waters. Detached seagrass may also be cast onto the shore where it decays and may re-enter the system as detritus (Unsworth et al. 2007). Rainbow parrotfish may be equally important in influencing seagrass export from the system by the high rates of material discarded during consumption. The unattached plant matter, estimated to be as high as 11% of seagrass growth, becomes subsequently removed from the system by weather and currents (Unsworth et al. 2007). This figure is in addition to the amount consumed in grazing which causes the loss of at least 16% of the seagrass growth each day (Unsworth et al. 2007). In spite of their ecological role and importance, S. guacamaia populations are thought to be in decline and to have been fished to ecological extinction in Brazil, as well as other areas of the Caribbean (Floeter 2006). Rainbow parrotfish has been listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. This designation means the species is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild based on one or more of the following five criteria: reduction of population size, shrinking geographic range, a population with fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, restricted population extent, or quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10% within 100 years (the full explanation of which are detailed in the 2004 IUCN criteria; version 2.3, Roberts 1996). Given this information and the ecosystem role of the species developing a model that details occurrence provides a means to assess the health and function of this parrotfish in this region. In addition, one may apply the methods not only throughout the range of this species, but it may be possible to apply this model to other parrotfish species and similar families across the Florida Reef Tract and the Caribbean Sea. Characteristics of the Biscayne Bay and Florida Reef Tract Region The Biscayne Bay region receives high numbers of larvae from offshore spawning adults and functions as a source point for juveniles and adults to migrate to the reef tract (Wang et al. 2003). The region also contains some of the most pristine habitat within the Florida Keys (Ishman 1997). The coastal shelf of the Florida Keys is characterized by shallow and highly variable topography, where currents are influenced by tides, wind, and the very energetic offshore Florida current system (Haus et al. 2000). The eddies and meanders of the Florida Current make it possible for upwelling and larval transport to occur across the shelf, and the scale of these perturbations can vary from slow moving mesoscale gyres to faster moving, sub-mesoscale eddies (Haus et al. 2000). Velocities of these eddies can range from 0.53 m/s to 0.80 m/s along the inshore edge of the Florida Current (Haus et al. 2000) and the variability of those velocities can have an impact on dispersal and the resulting end loc ations of larvae (Haus et al. 2000). Patch reefs in this region occupy a significant portion of the water column, which leads to variability in the water depth. These protrusions have the potential to change the strength and direction of the tidal flow in the bay. The northern Florida Keys contain over 4,000 patch reefs, composed generally of cemented reef (47.3 +/- 2.2% cover) and pavement (20.1 +/- 2.1%), with varying amounts of rubble, boulders and sand (Kuffner et al. 2009). The benthic community observed on these patch reefs is largely dominated by macrophytes, encrusting invertebrates, and suitable settlement substratum found beneath a substantial canopy of gorgonian (soft) corals (Kuffner et al. 2009). Macroalgae occupies a large portion of space on the reefs, especially Dictyota spp. (15.4 +/- 0.8% cover) and Halimeda tuna (11.7 +/- 0.6% cover). Live scleractinian corals account for only 5.8+/- 0.6% of the benthos (Kuffner et al. 2009). The tides are generally weak, with a semidiurnal height range of approximately 0.5 m (Haus et al. 2000). As measured in Caesar Creek, tidal velocity can exceed 25 cm/s, while current measurements within the inlets have shown peak tidal velocities in excess of 50 cm/s (Haus et al. 2000). These channels commonly referred to as the ABC Channels because of their names: Angelfish Creek, Broad Creek, and Caesar Creek form the main outlet from the southern end of Biscayne Bay onto the Florida reef tract. The ABC Channels convey large oscillating tidal flows and wind driven flows between the bay and the ocean, and transport through these corridors predominantly shows a semi-diurnal cycle with amplitudes of 500 m3/s, 300 m3/s, and 250 m3/s respectively (Wang et al. 2003). Based on observations, there is a net outflow at Angelfish and Caesar Creek, but an inconsistent inflow in Broad Creek (Wang et al. 2003). With the tidal flows and the input of freshwater, the residence times of the water varies widely from several months in the more enclosed Barnes Sound and circulation-restricted Card Sound (Ishman 1997), to about a month in the western parts of South Biscayne Bay, and nearly zero in the vicinity of the ocean inlets (Wang et al. 2003). The area encompassing Biscayne Bay south to Card Sound and Barnes Sound forms a barrier island lagoon system that exhibits estuarine characteristics near points of freshwater inflow during the wet and early dry season (Wang et al. 2003). This lagoon system leads to broad salinity regimes that are highly variable throughout the year, and vary greatly across relatively small areas of only several kilometers due to high freshwater input through canals (as opposed to groundwater), and limited tidal flushing. Salinity variations in Biscayne Bay primarily result from canal discharges through gated control structures, as well as smaller freshwater exchanges in the Bay driven by overland runoff, rainfall, and evaporation (Wang et al. 2003) and upwelling from groundwater (Ishman 1997). The greatest salinity fluctuations occur near canal mouths in Barnes Sound and along the western margin of Biscayne Bay. The smallest fluctuation ranges were observed near ocean inlets (Wang et al. 2003), where the vertical variations of salinity in the water column ranged from less than 0.2 †° to a maximum salinity change of 0.8 †° from top to bottom in the vicinity of the inlet mouth (Haus et al. 2000). In the Pelican Bank region of Biscayne Bay (see Figure 10), good circulation results in regular flushing and average salinities range from 33 to 35 †° (Ishman 1997). Water flow characteristics in this region are also determined by a network of drainage canals used for agricultural and industrial purposes. These canals also function to control flooding, which has greatly altered the distribution of freshwater within the watershed, as well as the quantity, quality, and timing of freshwater discharges to Biscayne Bay (Wang et al. 2003). This has led to greater pulses with larger peak discharges in the wet season and less freshwater reaching Biscayne Bay in the dry season due to reduced terrestrial storage and lowered groundwater levels (Wang et al. 2003). Increased runoff not only affects salinity conditions in coastal waters, but also can be a mechanism for increased nutrient loading (Rudnick et al. 2006). There exists a coastal ridge, bisecting the Bay, which acts as a groundwater divide, with water west of the ridge flowing toward Florida Bay. The outputs of freshwater from the canals have punctured massive holes through the ridge, changing the d irection and characteristics of the flow, and the qualities of the watershed (Wang et al. 2003). This region also is characterized by large coverage of submerged aquatic vegetation such as seagrasses, and wide availability of phytoplankton, microalgal and macroalgal species. Florida Bay is approximately 2000 km2 in total surface area, with 95% bottom coverage of seagrasses, characterized by sparse, patchy beds of Thalassia testudinum interspersed with locally abundant Halodule wrightii (Fourqurean and Robblee 1999). However, in the spring of 1991, Florida Bay exhibited a shift from a system characterized by clear water to one of extensive and persistent turbidity and phytoplankton blooms, which limits the ability of the seagrass to grow and function properly by reducing penetration of light in the water column (Fourqurean and Robblee 1999). This seagrass die-off was not accompanied or preceded by noticeable decreases in water clarity or increases in colonization by epiphytes, however. There were many hypothesized causes for this die-off which include hypoxia and sulfide toxicity , the loss of the estuarine nature of the system, overdevelopment of the seagrass beds, chronic hypersal

Real Food for The Hungry Essay -- Food Science

How often do children who whine about eating their peas and carrots at the dinner table hear from their mothers, â€Å"You should appreciate the food on our table, there are starving kids in Africa.† Although parents use the preceding phrase as a guilt mechanism to trick their children into eating their veggies so they too can consume the vitamins and nutrients they need to grow, the reality behind the phrase is much deeper than most realize. People are starving in almost every part of the world and the solution to that problem has yet to be discovered. A solution that has been considered for some time now but recently has sparked more interest is the use of genetically modified foods to feed the hungry. Should genetically modified foods be trusted to be fed to the hungry? As in most arguments, there are two sides to the production on genetically modified foods. On one hand of the argument, scientists are trying to argue that GM foods are natural, grow faster, and yield a larger amount of crops during harvest. Whether or not genetically modified foods can provide more food for the hungry than a natural crop could, they come with a list of problems. Not only do they cost poor farmers a ridiculous amount of money, but they also have unsafe chemicals that affect their surroundings and, more importantly, the bodies they would be digested in. Therefore, I believe genetically modified foods are a danger to humans. Multi-national companies are pushing the engineering and selling of genetically modified foods consciously for the purpose of gaining profit. Food policy analyst Dennis T. Avery asserts that â€Å"the development of GE foods is not being driven by farmers, consumers or less-developed countries but by large multinational chemical comp... ... Modified Foods Are Not the Best Way to Feed the Hungry." Africa. Ed. Laura K. Egendorf. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2005. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from "Better Dead than GM-Fed?" Seedling (Oct. 2002). Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 14 Apr. 2012. Smith, Jeffrey M. "Genetically Modified Food Threatens Human Health." Humanity's Future. Ed. Louise I. Gerdes. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2006. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from "Genetically Engineered Foods May Pose National Health Risk." www.seedsofdeception.com. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 23 Apr. 2012. Union of Concerned Scientists. "The Safeness of Genetically Modified Foods Is Unproven." Genetic Engineering. Ed. Louise I. Gerdes. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 2005. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. from "Risks of Genetic Engineering." 2007. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 23 Apr. 2012.

I-Search Research :: essays research papers

Prospectus For my Junior English Research Project. I would look into the different theories of what attracts two people to another. I chose this topic because I just want to know a true, good, and official reason for falling in â€Å" love †. Love, Well true love is a one in a million chance of happening. So†¦ I hope to find out what the different theories is most affective and accurate. Q: What is love? A: Love is when you have strong deep feelings for someone else and care about that person very much and only want that person to be happy. (Courtney’s answer) Q: How does love changes a person from the beginning until the end? A: Q: What are the 9 types of love? A: http://dataguru.org/love/fehrtyp.asp Q: What is Love part 2. A: http://www.bigbend.edu/soc/soc220/Outline4.htm Facts: The commitment dimension of love is often viewed as the decision to stay with one's partner for life. Commitments may range from simple verbal agreements (agreements not to become emotionally and/or sexually involved with other people) to publically formalized legal contracts (marriage). However, commitment is more than simply agreeing to stay with your partner through bad times. Commitment means being devoted to doing things to nurture the relationship and protect it from harm and to fix it if damaged. Both partners care about each other's needs and must be willing to put each other's needs first--including being willing to make personal sacrifices for the good of the relationship. The partners should be willing to depend on each other and feel secure that each will be loyal to each other and to the relationship. The emotional intimacy dimension of love is best characterized by feeling love for someone rather than being "in love" with them. The emotional intimacy dimension focuses on liking, friendship, trust and feelings of emotional closeness that result from being able to share one's innermost thoughts and feelings with a partner. Intimacy is achieved through a process by which one comes to know one's partner through increasing levels of self disclosure of one's thoughts and feelings. During the early stages of a relationship when the participants are still getting to know one another, strong passionate emotions may result from increasingly intimate levels of disclosure. Later, after the partners have gotten to know each other well, feelings of closeness, friendship, warmth, and caring will tend to predominate. For emotional intimacy to flourish, both partners must be understanding, open, supportive, and must feel like they can talk about anything without fear of being rejec ted.

Free Things They Carried Essays: The Girl Next Door :: Things They Carried Essays

The Girl Next Door in The Things They Carried The Feminist Approach Method to critical analysis examines the feminism implied within the text. In Tim O'Brien's, The Things They Carried, the story, "Sweetheart of Song Tra Bong," is a story about the changes in a female when she is exposed to war. But, more importantly it is a story that illustrates how women are more than sex objects. "Sweetheart of Song Tra Bong," proves that female and male stereotypes do not always apply. "Sweetheart of Song Tra Bong," is a story being told by Rat Kiley to Mitchell Sanders, two soldiers of the Vietnam War. Mark Fossie's girlfriend, Mary Anne Bell, comes to stay with the soldiers in their perimeter. She arrives to Vietnam by a helicopter with the daily shipment of supplies for the soldiers. When the soldiers meet her she is identified as an innocent blond with "white culottes and this sexy pink sweater" (90). Even her name is a direct reference to the Virgin Mary, a sign of purity. The men in the perimeter are attracted to her, because they see her as a sex object. They view her as a daily source of survival. In the beginning of the story, Mark Fossie guides Mary Anne around by the arm, but after a while, Mary Anne begins to guide herself. Slowly, she becomes curious about the equipment and the war. She begins to adapt to life in Vietnam by eating with her hands, and using the phrases she hears from the soldiers. She becomes less concerned about her appearance and her cleanliness, and she begins to use weapons. Her voice becomes lower, her body becomes firmer, and her eyes become colder. She is becoming less of a sex object to the soldiers, because she is more masculine. One night Mary Anne does not come back to Fossie. He begins jumping to the conclusion that she is sleeping with other soldiers, when actually she is just hanging out with the guys. Mary Anne explains to Fossie that the war is like an appetite. On page 111, she states: "I can feel my blood moving, my skin and my fingernails, everything, it's like I'm full of electricity and I'm glowing in the dark-I'm on fire almost-I'm burning away into nothing- but it doesn't matter because I know exactly who I am." This statement is referring to the idea that Mary Anne has found a part of her that was always missing.

Education For All Essay

Introduction There is so many reasons and so many ways that education can benefit people all around the world. It is stated that schooling for 1 year can increase one person’s income up to 10%, and that is only with 1 year of education!. Education makes people healthier by arming them with knowledge that they can use in their daily lives to protect themselves with, so that they can know how to clean and take care of themselves better. It also saves more children because educated mothers know how to take care of their children better since babies are fragile and very hard to take care of and will  decrease the children mortality rate. Education also teaches people female rights that are often ignored in poorer parts of the world because they have a different view of women. With education women will know their own rights and stand up for themselves instead of doing nothing. Having education for all people around the world is very important because it is the tool to combat poverty. Education will surely decrease poverty all around the world if there was education for everyone, that is not just my opinion, there are so many facts that prove that education will help people in need. Global Perspectives  Governments all around the world has been onto education for all, realizing how important it is to everyone because it can improve the world by a lot, so they decided to set up 6 goals that are related to education for all. These goals will help get the people in poverty basic education that they deserve. These goals will hopefully bring decrease poverty and hunger around the world. Those 6 goals will increase childhood care and also expand on childhood education. They also aim towards providing mandatory primary education for everyone so that everyone has basic education to arm themselves with. The goals will also push for learning life skills for everyone so that more people will be more willing to learn. Increasing adult literacy is also part of the agenda in the education for all goals. Improving the quality of education is one of the aims because there is no use having education for everyone if the quality of education is really low. I think that these goals are all really good goals to follow and if all the government stick to the goals and all the goals get achieved, there will be no more poverty because of education! National/Regional In China, Shanghai tried to give more access to all students and more support for  students that are failing or finding education hard. Shanghai aims to reduce the work that students have to do so that they can do better a school environment, and also create better preschool education to make sure students will do better in primary school. This goal is set to be reached at 2020. Most of the children that aren’t doing well in school are children of people who are migrant workers who didn’t have public education before. It is estimated that around 20% of students are the children of people that are migrant workers. Educational achievement is one thing China really cares about. Contrary to other countries in China, Shanghai realizes that minority students get good education too so Shanghai now has a policy letting migrant student attend public schools with other Shanghai children. There is a system that basically where a special type of school that has more sources than other schools and they accept less students, these schools are called â€Å"key schools†. This system is really outdated and it is less popular now. Shanghai removed this system because it promoted education inequality and made a policy where students had to attend their local school so it will be more equal. Local Perspectives In Hong Kong, they have rules that promote education for all so that everyone will be equal and no races will be left out just because of their race. In Hong Kong, schools can’t discriminate against your race by refusing to take in your child, or admitting your child in worse terms. They cannot deny access of any benefits, facilities or services that they give to other students. It is also against the law for any school, teacher or students to harass other children because of their race. There are 6 kind of schools in Hong Kong. Government schools, Aided schools, DSS Schools (Direct  Subsidy School), Private schools, ESF (English Foundation School), International School. The government, DSS and aided schools use a local curriculum while the other schools use curriculums based on themselves and what they believe in so this can vary a lot depending on the school. The government has a 6 year primary education plan that means you have to attend primary education for 6 years that is a necessity but it can be free if you are attending government schools or aided schools because those schools are funded by the government and not by any private owners. Personal Perspectives. I think that education for all is very important. There are social benefits from having education. There has been stats surveyed that people who have received college education have generally longer lives and will take better care of themselves. The people who receive education will have more self esteem and will be more satisfied with themselves. The people with good education will also be better at solving day to day problems that will make his life much more easier on a daily basis. Educational should be for both genders equally because Education should also be for everyone, it is  also more important for females because the education that the women received has more of an effect on her family and their generations. It doesnt only help herself, she also helps her family. That is why educating women is a good way and a first step to solving poverty on a global scale. There has been research done that married women will have smaller and healthier families. Educated women know the significance of health care and how to get it for her and her family. Education also helps women be more confident about herself and know that she has equal rights and both genders are equal. Education of parents are also linked to the education that their children are gonna receive and mothers is more influential than the fathers so mothers education is important. Educated women are likely to have less mistimed birth and unwanted babies so they will be prepared when they actually decide to have a baby. Education are being received by both genders now because equality of both genders are being recognized as important. Being education gender equal is one of the goals of the millennium development goals that is due in 2015. There are groups like UNFPA that advocate for universal education. They help try to make education more equal in more underdeveloped countries so more countries understand the importance of reducing the gender inequality gap. Future Scenarios and Possible Courses of Action I think that the governments all around the world need to prioritize education for all and bring it higher on their to do lists because it is easily one of the most important things to achieve and it will so many problems on earth. We should also make sure that there will be less sexism in this world because in the poorer areas, women are considered less equal than men. If a family had a daughter and a son, and could only  afford education for one, they will choose the boy because they think the girl is flawed compared to the boy. There should be more policies that empower women and make them more important because right now, people are sexist and still think that men is better than women even though its not true and there are information that suggests women can help solve poverty if more women get educated. I think that the governments in poorer places need to set up more event that promotes education so that everyone knows how important education is so they will emphasize on education for their children. The government should host events to get people to endorse and embrace education so children will want to go to school and work hard. I think there should be cheaper transport in poorer places so that children can get to school much more easily and in a cheaper way so the price of transportation won’t deter them away from going to school. Young people who received formal education should teach people around them so he can spread education to more people. I also think that the more developed countries should use some of their money to fund some organisations that help the less developed countries build schools and  education so more people will have proper education because everyone has the right of education and education is considered a basic human right for a long time. Personal Response I think education is really important because education also plays an important role in reducing world hunger. Child malnutrition is one of the highest death causing problem there is in underdeveloped countries. It is estimated that about 1 billion people do not have access to proper nutrition that is needed to have a healthy life. One of the most important factors of reducing world hunger is educating women, which is  even more effective than directly giving them food. In Bangladesh, if a mother is illiterate, there is a higher chance that her child will be malnourished. Education can help increase food production in countries by giving people the knowledge they need to produce more food and also to increase their knowledge about health. There are studies that show that education directly correlates with food security. In Bangladesh, as women with higher forms of education, there is a much lower chance that they have malnourished children. Research also shows that people with higher forms of education  can produce more foods than ordinary farmers with no knowledge because they might adapt smart strategies that can help produce more food than farmers that use the same strategies over and over again. Only few years of primary education can already boost a farmers output by 9%. In saharan africa, investing in educating women can potentially boost the output of the food by about 25% which is a really higher number. AIDS/HIV is a really huge problem in still developing countries and one of the most important ways of preventing or help reduce the number of AIDS/HIV is education. According to the global campaign for education, â€Å"If all children received a complete primary education, the economic impact of HIV/AIDS could be greatly reduced and around 700,000 cases of HIV in young adults could be prevented each year, seven million in a decade† That just shows that education is key to stopping and preventing AIDS/HIV from spreading even more. Lots of young men and women who don’t have the required education do not even know about AIDS/HIV and is in risk of getting it very easily. References www. educationforallblog. org www. unicef. org www. eoc. org. hk www. ncee. org www. unesco. org www. un. org.

Develop and promote positive relationships Essay

The importance of good working relationships in the setting. It’s very important to have a good working relationship within a setting because it reflects and promotes a positive environment, that is not only inviting for children but for the parents also. Staffs are also approachable and children will be relaxed and confident and will feel that they are able to trust you. Parents would also find it easier to form professional relationships with staff members, this helps to make separation and transitions easier for the child and parent. It also makes discussing important information about the Childs individual needs or concerns easier. Forming good relationships with other colleagues makes the setting run smoothly, information is easily passed on. The working environment is relaxed and more enjoyable. K2 Relevant legal requirements covering the way you relate to and interact with children and young people The relevant requirements covering the way we relate to and interact with children are The United Nations Convention On The Rights Of Children 1989, this legislation ensures that children are listened to, shown respect and have the right to make choices (within reason). They must be protected from discrimination and have the right to freedom of expression. The Children’s Act 1989 brings together various pieces of legislation; it covers child protection and the responsibilities a parent must adhere to, as well as ensuring that children’s welfare is of a paramount importance. K3 Relevant legal requirements and procedures covering confidentiality and the disclosure of information. The Data Protection Act 1998 requires anyone who handles personal information to comply with a number of important principles. It also gives individuals rights over their personal information. This act covers all information held on paper or computer systems and all organizations that store personal data must register with the Data Protection Commission. The eight enforceable principles that must comply with are: †¢Fairly and lawfully processed. †¢Processed for limited purposes. †¢Adequate, relevant and not excessive. †¢Accurate. †¢Not kept longer than necessary. †¢Processed in accordance with the data subject’s rights. †¢Secure. †¢Not transferred to other countries without adequate protection. To comply with these principles every school processing personal data must notify under the Act. Data Protection within the school is also checked with auditors and ofsted. Any passing on of a child’s personal information to other professionals must have written consent from the parents or main carer, or the school would be in breach of the Data Protection Act. All admission details of children leaving the school are passed on to their new schools, but historical data is kept on the school’s IT Management system. This information is stored under a secure password protected application. The different types of personal data which is held in the school are: Name and address of the child. Gender. Contact details of parents/carer including emergency telephone numbers. Development records/profiles of each child. Observations including photographic evidence on each child. Medical information. Absence/attendance records. Unique pupil number. Within the school any general information such as doctor /dentist or other professional appointments should be shared between colleagues only. We also have a medical room within the main school which contains medical records and photographs of those children who have food allergies and other serious conditions such as diabetes. Again this confidential information is only accessible by members of staff. It is also essential and important when working with children not to discuss them or their family outside your setting. No information should be passed on without parental consent, unless requested by the police or social services. The only time that you are allowed to breach confidentiality is when you are safe guarding a child or in an emergency. K4 Relevant legal requirements covering the needs of disabled children and young people and those with special educational needs. Legislation and the special needs code of practice: SEN and Disability Act 2001: Providers should make reasonable adjustments to include children with SEN e. g. provide / attend training. A written SEN policy is needed. A SENCO should be identified. Education Act 1944: Children with special needs should be educated alongside their peers. The views of parents should be recognized. Children’s handicap should be diagnosed. Disability Discrimination Act 1995. Those who provide goods and services to the public must make sure that they do not discriminate against those who have a disability, including children who may have learning or physical difficulties or long term illness. Code of Practice 1994. A five stage process to assess a child’s special needs is identified. If needed a statement is written to say how those needs will be met. Code of Practice 2001. A staged system of assessment consisting of Action and Action plus is introduced to support children whose needs may not require a statement or to contribute to the process of statementing. Education Act 1989. Children with disabilities should be educated in mainstream schools wherever possible. Health, education and social services should work together to asses a child’s needs. Children’s Act 1989. Every local authority should provide services for children with special educational needs in their local area. Early identification of special needs is important. K5 The types of information that should be treated confidentially: who you can and cannot share this information with. Who should have access to any records? Head teacher, teacher, parents/carers, Ofsted, SENCO, Social services and other professionals. 2. Where should records be stored? Records are stored in secure cabinets. In a software package. These records are on the individual teacher’s laptops which are password protected and stored in a central storage room overnight. All back up discs are also stored in secure cabinets. 3. How can records be checked for accuracy? External moderators from the Local Educational Authority check the software for accuracy and EYFS profiling. Regular meetings with current examples of tracking and profiles take place between the school and the moderators. 4. Who should be allowed to carry out observations and assessments? Teacher, Key person, SENCO and assessors. 5. Who can give permission for observations and assessments to take place? Written permission forms are signed by parents/carers at the start of the academic year for all new children attending the school, this also covers photographic observations/evidence. K6 The meaning of anti-discriminatory practice and how to integrate this into your relationships with children and other adults. It is paramount that all children and families feel that the setting is welcoming, non-threatening and that they are respected and valued. These means that all practitioners should have excellent communication skills and have the ability to listen carefully, question, understand and respond in a positive manner. Developing and building a trusted two way relationship means that you will be able to support both the family and child throughout their time in your care. The school also promotes that all individual children are given equal access to the school’s curriculum, care, moral and spiritual input, sports, arts and play opportunities. This support also includes the children being healthy, safe, enjoying and achieving and; making positive contributions to the community and society. A SEN register is held in school of all children who have been identified as having special needs. Other registers record different circumstances which may affect children’s access to the curriculum such as English as an additional language, medical needs, gifted and talented. K7 How you adapt your behaviour and communication with children to meet the needs of children in your care of different ages, genders, ethnicities, needs and abilities. It is still essential with this age group of children and young people to build on good relationships; they will be experiencing many physical changes and may feel anxious about puberty. Adults need to able to listen and be sensitive to the changes they are going through. It is vital that they have positive adult relationships, with an adult who can listen carefully, are sensitive, non-judgmental and have empathy to their individual needs. Within this age group they face far more peer pressure, wanting to fit in with their peers, feeling concerned about their outward appearances, even facing issues such as sex and experimentation with alcohol and drugs. Having a good relationship away from a family member where the children or young people can feel that they can express their own views and opinions and be respected and spoken to as an equal over important issues in their lives is paramount. Therefore they still require an adult who can give them advice, reassurance, praise and encouragement and understand their needs. K8 Strategies you can adopt to help children to feel welcome and valued in the setting. I ensure that all children in my setting are given the opportunities to play with an activity of their choice and that their views and beliefs are listened to. All children must be praised and encouraged, valued and listened to. I make them feel welcome and valued by being a positive role model and by taking an interest in what they do and say. K9 What is meant by ‘appropriate’ and ‘inappropriate behaviour when interacting with children, the policies and procedures to follow and why these are important? The school’s policies and procedures all members of staff must have a full and active part to play in protecting all pupils from harm, and at all times the children’s welfare is of paramount concern. We should all be working together to provide a caring positive and stimulating environment that promotes the social, physical and moral development of all the individual children. All members of staff are expected to develop their performance portfolios and undertake annual performance management meetings to improve on their teaching standards. The importance of following the school’s policies and procedures in appropriate behaviour are that you are contributing to the overall ethos and aims of the school and safe guarding the children. Helping to promote inclusion and acceptance of all pupils and encouraging interaction with others. Appropriate behaviour helps to develop the children’s confidence, self esteem, resilience and independence giving them a feeling of being respected and valued. Inappropriate behaviour from members of staff could result in the children lacking in confidence and lowering their self esteem. The children we feel that their views and opinions are not respected or valued. The children will become less independent and it will promote bad behaviour resulting in an environment where they will not learn or feel safe. Using unprofessional behaviour when interacting with children could become a child protection issue. Therefore it is inappropriate to be too personal or give personal information to the children in your care. K10 The importance of encouraging children to make choices for themselves and strategies to support this. By encouraging children to act in this way you are helping them to develop and make them become aware of their own needs and areas of improvement. This can be done by allowing the child to try and solve problems or necessary decisions before advice is given. Options can be given to the child to help them choose a path to take K11 The importance of involving children in decision-making and strategies you can use to do this. Within the foundation stage, the overall area is split into specific activities such as role play, home corner, writing table, messy area, quiet area and the outside area. The children can make decisions on when, how and for how long they stay at an activity. With all of the activities, there will be under pinned planned learning intentions and outcomes, some of which will have adult led or adult engagement involved. By letting the children play independently and by not interfering or leading the play, the children will develop social and emotional skills and learn to play alongside others or co-operatively. It enhances their imagination and creativity, develops communication and language skills as they work through ideas and concepts, also enabling the children to take risks and make mistakes and learn through their experiences. In involving the children in decision-making it will build on their confidence and self esteem and they will feel that their views and feelings are valued. K12 How to negotiate with children according to their age and stage of development. The first step in negotiation is to ask ‘what don’t you want to do and why. ‘ Using age related language, experience of the situation, the child and or children will in general be able to come to or reach an outcome. All children need choices it is not age specific, it depends on what level they are at in their development and understanding, for the choices that you give them. For example under 3 year olds, Its tidy up time, ask them to tidy away three things, give them a choice of what three things they are going to pick up. With children 3 years of age and over they start to learn for themselves about negotiating through their play by figuring out what the rules are, who’s going to go first, sharing toys and activities. As children get older it is important for them to be involved in negotiating and decision-making as it develops their ability to become responsible, understand consequences and prevents them from feeling excluded and powerless. Giving children choices puts the responsibility and power back into their hands. Within a school there are several ways in which you can negotiate with the children, including rewards such as stickers for those children who can undress independently for PE. For example if a few children who refuse to get changed, rewarding them with a sticker encourages them to try to undress independently or with our support. Maybe reward house points for good behaviour in following our ‘rules’ or trying really hard and working at their best ability. In the outside area we time the use of the bikes, scooter and cars so that all the children have a turn. We ensure that all the children have a choice of independent or adult led activities. When negotiating we are consistent with our actions and give the children explanations and consequences and listen to their views and feelings. K13 Strategies you can use to show children that you respect their individuality Keys to good practice: Provide activities that encourage self-expression. Provide opportunities within the foundation stage in creative development for the children to express themselves in exploring different media such as painting, drawing and modelling. The children can develop their imagination and expression in songs, music and dance, imaginative play and role play. Celebrate diversity by learning about each other’s culture, religion and beliefs. Encourage the children to listen and talk to each other in our weekly show and tell activity where the children can share a special toy, achievement or a special outing with us and their peers. Provide open-ended activities that children can put their own ‘stamp’ on. Allow the children free flow play where they can make up their own rules and games by providing different areas for role play and activities. Have independent activities based around our themed topics in which the children can expand on such as ‘buildings’. The children make 3D and 2D â€Å"Three little pigs† houses which is an adult led activity. By allowing them different mediums the children independently made houses by chalking out a town in our outside area, making houses with constructions toys, junk modelling, tents, and building their own using building bricks and homemade cement. Avoid comments that single children out as being different. Ensure that we listen and talk to the children include them in choices and decision making, acknowledge their interests and abilities by respecting their backgrounds, experiences and culture. Acknowledge children’s particular strengths and talents. Ensure that you respond to the children in different ways depending on their personalities. We share achievements or talents in special assemblies where the children can show their certificates or their talents to the rest of their peers. Show interest in things that the children enjoy doing. By knowing the children really well you can encourage them to try a new way of completing an activity such as if you know a child likes painting try to persuade them to try a different medium like a collage or junk modeling to create a picture. K14 How to balance the needs of individual children with those of the group as a whole. Within the setting daily routines of which the children have to adhere to such as registration and weekly timetable to adhere to. The school’s planning process involves grouping the children together by learning ability, style, physical and social groups and the teaching resources and levels are matched and deployed to deliver different styles of teaching to these different groups. K15 The importance of clear communication with children and specific issues that may arise in bilingual and multilingual settings All communication is a two way process and it is paramount when working with children that you listen carefully, question, understand and respond in a positive manner to what is being communicated to you. This will give the children the fundamental skills to take part in family life, school, employment and social activities. Within the setting we provide opportunities for the children to development their communication and language skills by different activities: It is important to give children clear communication and sufficient time to express themselves. †¢Showing our understanding and respect. †¢Giving children confidence and self esteem. †¢Encouraging independence. †¢Children can express their feelings and views. †¢Encourages socialising skills. †¢Gives children choice. †¢Showing we understand their needs. †¢Develops their language and communication skills. Also within our setting we have several children who are bilingual and multilingual with two or more languages these children have extra weekly support from our EAL co-ordinator. With these children we also ensure that we give clear and understandable instructions and in some cases use hand gestures or picture clues to help with their understanding. K16 Why it is important for children to ask questions, offer ideas and suggestions and how you can help them do this †¢It makes them feel part of the school. †¢They can have their say. †¢Gives the children a sense of responsibility. †¢Encourages their independence and confidence. †¢They will have a sense of belonging and pride in their school. †¢The children’s views and opinions are being listened to. †¢They will look after the new area or equipment (respect it). †¢Gives the children choices. †¢Builds relationships. †¢Develops their communication and language skills †¢They feel respected and valued. †¢They will explore and experience different activities / environments. †¢Develops their knowledge and understanding of the world. I feel that this is important to include the children in decisions about their environment, activities and learning opportunities because it gives them a sense of responsibility, independence and they will feel respected and valued. We do this by ensuring that the children have time to ask questions in a relaxed and natural way throughout their school day. K17 Why it is important to listen to children? It is important to listen to children so they know that you are interested in what they say and that you care for them. You also get to learn about the child when they are talking to you, for example if you need to help them with their language development or help them in their learning. †¢The children will feel that you are not interested in them. †¢Demonstrates that you are a role model to the children. †¢It builds the children’s self esteem and confidence. †¢It builds on good relationships with the children and other adults. †¢The children feel respected and will be happy to share suggestions and decisions. †¢Develops the children’s communication and language. †¢Helps the children to learn socialising, negotiation skills and independence. †¢The children may need to disclose a safeguarding incident. †¢It shows that we understand the children’s needs. K18 How to respond to children in a way that shows you value what they have to say and the types of behaviour that could show that you do not value their ideas and feelings. All children respond well to positive reinforcement of expected behaviour boundaries. By just giving general statements such as â€Å"do not interrupt† or â€Å"well done† does not reinforce or teach good values. Also by asking open questions you can demonstrate that you are listening to the child and or children and giving them time to express their feelings, views and opinions. K19 The importance of being sensitive to communication difficulties with children and how to adapt the way you communicate to different situations. Communication difficulties with children: †¢Hearing difficulties or deaf. †¢Poor vision or blind. †¢Ill health. †¢Special educational needs. †¢Physical disability. †¢Poor language skills or English as an additional language. †¢Disruptive child. †¢Speech problems. Cultural Differences and English as an additional language 1. Smile and have friendly facial expressions. 2. Use hand gestures to gain understanding. 3. Use pictures. 4. Show warmth and encouragement. 5. Use culturally relevant learning materials. 6. Group EAL co-ordinator who shares the same home language. 7. Have some key words in their home language. 8. Use translator. 9. Always treat children with respect and as individuals. 10. Ensure that you take into account their cultural differences, their life experiences and the way they prefer to communicate. 11. Respond appropriately to their non-verbal communication. Hearing impairment 1. Ensure that you always speak clearly and listen carefully. 2. Remove all distractions. 3. Always check and ensure hearing aids are working. 4. Use written communication if age appropriate. 5. Use sign language if and when appropriate. 6. Use a trained interpreter if a high level of skill is required. 7. Explain things using short, clear sentences and draw or use pictures, as required, to illustrate what you mean. 8. Use physical objects when learning new words or concepts. 9. Ensure the child as your full attention and that you maintain eye contact. Visual impairment 1. Use methods of multi-sensory interactions such as touch, sounds and smell. 2. Use different tones of voice with lots of expression. 3. Do not rely on non-verbal communication. 4. Use environmental sounds. 5. Develop routines when interacting with the child, such as using their name and touch in a consistent manner. Have clear signals that show the beginning and the end of your exchanges. 6. When explaining an activity or object ensure all visual communication is clear and understandable. Physical and learning Disabilities 1. Use alternative and augmentative communication such as hand gestures and eye pointing. 2. Use visual aids such as communication boards or displays, photographs, drawings and symbols to represent words or activities. 3. Use chat books or photograph album containing photographs, pictures, symbols, words and messages. 4. Use speech generating devices such as communication boards or displays on a machine which speak a message when a particular button is pressed. 5. Use spelling, using an alphabet board or typing device to spell out words and messages. 6. Use formal signing or signing which is particular to an individual. 7. Use object symbols that include normally objects or small versions of objects which represent an activity, object or person. Such as a set of car keys can represent it is time to go in the car. 8. Use a multi-sensory approach when providing information and learning taking into account the five senses and present information and activities in a different way enhancing learning and involving the children by doing, touching and seeing. 9. Ensure that your surroundings are appropriate and accessible. 10. Judge correct level of understanding. 11. Respond at the correct level repeating information when necessary. 12. Be prepared to wait and listen carefully. These children can be supported by: †¢Senco. †¢Parents. †¢Children under two by the health visitor. †¢EAL co-ordinator. †¢Other professionals †¢Nurture assistant. In terms of our physical environment we have no children with visual or speech impairments or with physical disabilities within the current foundation stage. So therefore we have no need of changing our different areas to accommodate any of these children. I would ensure that we accommodated these children by ensuring that the environment was spacious and accessible, bringing activities to their level or the floor. I would also use more visual and tactile aids. K20 How you can help the children to understand the value and importance of positive relationships with others. Within our school we encourage the children to develop positive relationships with others by praising good behaviour and following our rules. We act as positive role models such as praising nice manners. I have a rule for example, that if you accidently kick a ball over the fence I will let the children retrieve it if they can ask me with lovely manners. If they don’t ask nicely I make them wait and think about what would be a polite way of asking to retrieve the ball, thus instilling positive and desired behaviour. K21 The importance of children valuing and respecting other people’s individuality and how you can encourage and support this. †¢Act as a role model showing that you respect others individuality, feelings, views, ideas and cultures. †¢Have positive images and toys, books and dolls within your setting. †¢Have activities that encourage negotiation, sharing and building on relationships. †¢Demonstrate positive behaviour. †¢Have activities which encourage the children to talk to, listen and find out about others. K22 Why it is important for children to understand and respect other people’s feelings and how you can encourage and support this. †¢Stops the children’s frustration. †¢The children will feel that their feelings are being viewed. †¢Encourages empathy and social skills. †¢Encourages and promotes positive and expected behaviour. †¢Builds relationships. †¢Develops the children’s communication and language. †¢Develops personal, social and emotional skills. †¢Develops the children’s knowledge and understanding of the world. K23 Why it is important to be consistent and fair in dealing with positive and negative behaviour. †¢Being consistent and fair the children will understand right and wrong. †¢The children will understand expected behaviour boundaries and rules. †¢The children will understand consequences. †¢The children will understand that you are not showing favouritism. †¢The children will understand what is acceptable and what is not. Within my setting we reward positive behaviour with praise and other recognition such as house points and stickers. This is done in the presence of the child’s peers to encourage and reinforce positive and desired behaviour. With negative behaviour, if safe to do so we give no attention as it is often a play by the child for your attention. However, some unsafe and disruptive behaviour must be addressed immediately in a consistent and fair manner. K24 Strategies you can use to encourage and reinforce positive behavior Children may have negative behaviour due to: 1. Lack of sleep. 2. Feeling unwell. 3. Problems at home. 4. Sibling rivalry. 5. Tension at home. 6. Some children do not know how to play with others. 7. Bored and frustrated. 8. Lack confidence in socialising with others. We acknowledge positive behaviour and give reasons behind any boundaries such as we walk in school because we might fall over and hurt ourselves or others. We are consistent and fair by rewarding praise, house points and stickers for following the rules. We control negative behaviour by reinforcing and reminding the children of our rules. K25 Strategies you can use to challenge and deal with different types of behaviour which are consistent with your organisation’s policies The school policy aims and expectations are that every member of the school community feels valued and respected and that each person is treated fairly and well. The school’s policy encourages and promotes good relationships and that we work together to help everyone learn. We also aim to help the children grow in a safe and secure environment and for them to become positive, responsible and increasingly independent members of the school community. The school’s main ethos is to reward good behaviour as it believes that this will develop an environment of kindness and co-operation. The school employs sanctions to negative behaviour which are appropriate to each individual child, taking into consideration each child’s needs and the issue. The role of members of staff are to ensure that the rules are enforced in their class, that each individual child is treated fairly and consistently, to monitor repeated incidents and to seek advice from appropriate leadership team if necessary. We also use behaviour observations to help us understand the needs of the individual child such as requiring extra support from key worker, SENCO, EAL Co-ordinator, Management or other professionals. We also use different strategies and resources such as SEAL (Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning) to help individual children with their behaviour. K27 Why it is important to encourage and support positive relationships between children and other adults in the setting and strategies you can use to do this †¢It demonstrates that you are showing respect and sensitively. †¢Promotes good and positive behaviour. †¢Act as a role model for the children. †¢Promotes good communication in a caring and clear way. †¢It promotes good manners. †¢The children feel that they are listened too and that you value what they have to say. †¢It creates a positive atmosphere and environment where the children feel welcome and valued. †¢Promotes a friendly, consistent environment where the children will feel their views are worthwhile. †¢Ensure that you always give reasons and take time to explain your thoughts and actions. The main strategies that we use in the school are we work very closely in a team in the Foundation Area; we have a consistent approach with dealing with the children’s behavioural issues. We encourage the children to interact and build on relationships with all of us by acting as role models and by reinforcing our key rules. We also spend time with all the children across both classrooms in teaching and delivering our planned activities each week including taking phonics sessions, guided reading sessions, show and tell, PE and music, key person story time and supervision of the outside area. We have effective communication across the team to enable us all to keep up to date with any issues such as medical conditions, negative behaviour incidents, records of ongoing assessments / observations, developmental progress and achievements of the children in our care. K28 Why positive relationships with other adults are important. As a practitioner it is important that you maintain and have positive relationships with all adults that you come in contact with to support and develop the children in your care to grow into secure, confident and happy people. Having collaboration and support from parents, colleagues and other professionals will enable you to develop strong relationships which will enhance and benefit the children by demonstrating positive and desired behaviour. The children will cope better with transitions from home to school, to new classroom, to new staff and or support from other professionals. K29 Why it is important to show respect for other adults’ individuality and how to do so ? It’s important to respect other